Human Environment Interaction In Mexico

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Published: 05 June 2020

Environmental interactions between people and birds in semiarid lands of the Zapotitlán Valley, Key United mexican states

Ana Isabel Moreno-Calles ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2526-2739 ¹,
Fernando Alvarado-Ramos¹,
Maurino Reyes Castillo² &
…
Alejandro Casas³

Periodical of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume sixteen, Article number:32 (2020) Cite this article

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Abstract

Background

Birds accept been among the most important chemical element in lives of humans effectually the earth, due to their presence and abundance in practically all ecosystems. Zapotitlán Salinas, a community of the Tehuacán Valley, has been a site of interest for studying ecology of bird communities, simply no previous studies addressing the relationship between humans and birds have been conducted in the surface area. Based on their local cognition, people of the expanse shape the use and conservation of local bird fauna diversity, which is being maintained or lost under the influence of factors like commerce, tourism, agriculture intensification or abandonment, public policies for conservation, environmental changes, among others. This study aims to analyze the patterns of interactions between humans and birds in a context of high biocultural diversity with a long history and facing the environmental and social challenges of semiarid areas.

Methods

Ecological sampling for documenting bird species richness was conducted from November 2015 to May 2017 in 3 transects that included agroforestry systems, forests, and fallow agricultural land. The method of counting past fixed radius points at 16 points inside the study systems was used. Thirty in-depth interviews were conducted with local people who own land in the report areas past random sampling and choosing experts of Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla, a semiarid natural protected area and, since 2019, recognized every bit Mixed World Heritage. Some visitor guides of the Helia Bravo Hollis Botanical Garden who are member of the community and local people who dedicated part of their time to catching birds were considered as local experts. They take experience in identifying birds through bird watching and listening to bird songs, also as their knowledge on behavior and habits of the bird species occurring in their locality. We in addition conducted free list of bird species recognized by people and interviews on ecological aspects, forms of employ, and direction of birds using a photographic itemize every bit visual stimulus. The following aspects were addressed with local people: (i) the bird species of Zapotitlán recognized by them; (ii) the biological, ecological, and behavioral knowledge virtually these species; (iii) the description of practices of apply and direction of these animals; (iv) the perceived changes regarding presence and abundance of the wild birds recognized; and (v) the regulations of these practices and uses.

Results

Through the ecological sampling, we identified 89 bird species, a number representing nigh 68% of all species reported for the Zapotitlán Valley. The species recorded belong to 61 genera, 26 families, and xi orders. Local people interviewed recognized 62 morphospecies occurring in their territory, and designated them with 50 local names. The interactions of local people with birds and the knowledge related to habitats and habits varied according to people's daily life activities and the ways of inter-generational transmission of cognition. The interactions identified answer to several motivations. The most intense are those of utilitarian nature (iii types of use are recognized: nutritional, medicinal, and ornamental), while other less notorious just every bit relevant are those related to the awareness and conservation of biological variety, and aesthetic appreciation of nature. Also relevant are those interactions shaped by the people's worldview since some species are interpreted equally climatic environmental predictors, amulets, or omens.

Conclusions

To understand the various man-bird environmental interactions, it is necessary non merely to address the utilitarian assessment that species have in a specific place only besides those associated with cultural expressions and the connexion betwixt these aspects. Lifestyles, traditions, and beliefs model intangible forms of utilize, such equally the estimation of climate predictors. Ancient roles of birds in local civilisation are ongoing, and new demand of ornamental birds from cities influences catching activities but local and regional regulations take contributed to maintain them below a disquisitional level.

Background

Wildlife has been an of import chemical element in lives of humans around the globe, and currently is a highly valued component of biocultural diversity. Such valuation is due to reasons of both utilitarian nature since it allows to encompass basic needs, and cultural reasons since different creature species have had symbolic-religious attributes [1].

Among the faunal groups, human being beings accept been related to birds in various means due to their presence in practically all ecosystems, their high abundance, and the ease of establishing contact with them [2]. In United mexican states occur between 1123 and 1150 species [3, four], which stand for nearly 11% of the bird species richness existing in the world [5]. This country is currently the eleventh country with higher bird species richness and the fourth with higher endemism, with 194 to 212 species having some degree of endemism [5].

As a result of the interactions between homo cultures and birds, these vertebrates have been used for multiple purposes; the most frequent beingness food and medicinal. This pattern reflects the needs of humans in the areas where birds are used and from this information it is possible to define the importance of wild, managed, or domesticated birds [6,7,eight].

The capture and commercialization of birds for ornamental purposes is a pre-Hispanic practice that currently persists in various communities in Mexico [nine]; the most popular species for this purpose being pigeons (Zenaida asiatica (Linnaeus, 1758); Columbina inca (Lesson, 1847)), the cenzontle (Mimus polyglottos (Linnaeus, 1758)), and several species of psittacids, such as parakeets (Aratinga nana (Vigors,1830); Amazona albifrons (Sparrman, 1788)); species of the Cardinalidae (cardinals, grosbeaks), Emberizidae (sparrows), Parulidae, and Corvidae [6, 10,11,12], which are marketed and maintained by households.

In rural communities, it is common to observe that a species tin have more than one employ and the parts of an individual can be destined to different purposes; also, people look for an integral utilize of bird species [6, 13].

In improver to their direct use, birds are associated to the announcement of rains, the description of changes in winds (climatic and environmental changes predictors), they are role of legends and omens of events, and they may be protecting as amulets [13,14,15,xvi]. Employ of birds as omens and predictors are based on culturally learned and shared meanings in various human communities; this human relationship makes birds dynamic elements in societies, beyond their ecological role in ecosystems [xvi].

It has been proposed that the richness of birds is direct related to the amount of rainfall in a region [17], but information technology is now also recognized that birds can be a diverse group in arid areas in correlation with the degree of environmental heterogeneity [18]. For instance, in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve (TCBR), bird beast diversity is every bit high as that of areas dominated past tropical deciduous forests, and greater than that of other important arid areas of N America, fifty-fifty though the region has a smaller expanse [18, 19]. Such state of variety is related with the loftier diversity of other biological groups and because of the ecosystem heterogeneity existing in that region [20].

Within this important semiarid zone, the hamlet of Zapotitlán Salinas has been a site of special interest for the report of bird species richness, ecological interactions, and bird customs dynamics [21]. However, no previous studies have been carried out addressing the relationship between humans and birds.

Zapotitlán has had relevant social-ecological changes in the last twenty years, which have influenced interactions between people and nature. Among these changes, the prescript of the region as a Natural Protected Area (NPA) in 1998 had relevance [20]. As consequence, several communitarian regulations were constructed to have admission to ecosystems and biodiversity [20, 22]. In improver, it should be mentioned social changes associated to migration of people and occupational changes from a main agriculturalist manner of life to a tourism practice [22,23,24], as well equally environmental changes such as marked interannual climatic variations, as recorded by local and regional climatic stations and other environmental changes, mainly changes in vegetation cover or its protection [21, 25, 26]. In such context, the main objective of this written report was to analyze the environmental interactions between local people and birds in this boondocks in relation to the social and ecological changes occurring in the area. We documented (i) the local environmental knowledge that the inhabitants have about the birds in their community, (ii) the utilize and management practices of birds and possible changes over time, and (iii) the existing rules and agreements in relation to the management of the birdlife.

Methods

Report area

Zapotitlán Salinas is the municipality located in western TCBR with a dry, semi-warm climate scanty rainy season in summer, with annual average of rainfall and temperature of 425 mm and 21.ii °C, respectively [27] (Fig. 1). Iii territorial assemblages are identified: the communal land, the municipal head urban area, and the Botanical Garden Helia Bravo Hollis, which is formed by 100 ha exclusively defended to conservation [28]. The vegetation types occurring in this expanse are thorns-crub, tropical deciduous wood and xerophilous wood, and pastureland, with chaparral or Mexical in the hills surrounding the valley [29], and the vegetation communities are mezquital, thorn forest, columnar cacti forests (locally called tetechera and cardonal), the rosetophyllous forest izotal, the tetechera-candelillar, and the tropical dry wood [29,30,31,32] (Fig. 2). Regarding the herpetofauna of Zapotitlán Salinas, seven and 33 species of amphibians and reptiles have been reported, respectively [33], and 131 mammal species reported for the TCBR [34]. There is a listing of insects still under construction, which includes edible thumbtacks, maguey worms, butterfly larvae, ants, bees, scorpions, among others [35, 36].

A full of 130 species of birds take been registered in the written report area, belonging to 13 orders and 36 families, 18 of which are considered endemic to United mexican states and xiv under some protection category in the NOM-059 or according to IUCN [21].

Currently, Zapotitlán Salinas is an bonny expanse for tourism, and office of people live from this action equally tourist guides, handcraft makers, and sellers, amongst others. But about people are dedicated to subsistence agriculture, free grazing of goats, salt production in mines, and harvesting wild resources [37, 38]. The decree of the region every bit an NPA, together with the inhabitants' perception of water scarcity in the last 15 years, and changes in the forms of system, have been detrimental for agricultural-livestock activities, giving way to the gradual abandonment of milpa-based agronomics, the increase in cash crops, and the increasing of activities related to tourism and offer of services [22, 39]. Only about 5% of the total population of Zapotitlán Salinas continues cultivating country annually [22].

Research design

Sampling of bird species richness in agroforestry systems

Method for 50 m fixed radio counting points

Through this method, the observer remains at each fixed point and records all the birds observed and heard in an established area, for 10 min; recording in a format the counting betoken, the fourth dimension of ascertainment, the species, besides as age and sex of the individual recorded [forty].

A full of 16 counting points was distributed in iii transects, located in Paraje de la Monja (8 points), El Chichipe (four points), and San Martín (four points). The transects were placed in areas where in that location are agroforestry fields, semi-terraced areas with active agronomical use, or fallow agronomical areas and wood. This decision was taken because people commented that they find or collaborate more frequently with birds in these management systems, in addition to other sites, mainly forests and homegardens.

Sampling was carried out from Nov 2015 to May 2017 (Tabular array 1), covering different seasons throughout the year to detect patterns and changes forth the different periods during the migratory season (in November) and the nesting flavour (from April to August), co-ordinate to the data reported by Arizmendi and Espinosa de los Monteros [19].

Table 1 Bird sampling with the method of fifty m fixed radio count points

Full size table

Interviews

Thirty semi-structured interviews [41] were conducted, from January to September 2017, with the purpose of describing the practices, beliefs, norms, institutions, and local environmental knowledge on birdlife. At the beginning of all the interviews, a free listing of the birds that the interviewed person knew was carried out.

During the interviews, the following aspects were addressed: (i) Zapotitlán birds that are recognized by local people; (ii) the biological, ecological, and behavioral cognition that people have most the mentioned species; (3) the existence and description of management practices and ways of using birds; (4) the perceived changes and causes of these changes in both abundance and access to wild birds every bit resources; and (v) the governance (norms, agreements, and institutions) that exist in relation to people and birds interactions.

Out of 30 interviews conducted, 23 were carried out to one person and seven to ii persons of a household simultaneously, in full 37 persons, 22 of them women and xv men between 32 and 91 years sometime. The interviews were conducted with farmers who own land, homegardens owners, and local experts. We considered as local experts those tourist guides of the Helia Bravo Hollis Botanical Garden and people who are or were dedicated to catching birds for sale or as ornament. We consider that there is a strong interaction between these people and birds, when developing their productive activities and daily activities in these places which are inhabited and visited by birds.

A stratified "snowball" sampling was used to select people to be interviewed, which consisted in choosing individuals from one or several central informants, who guided the interviewer to other people who might have relevant information [42]. Likewise, the number of respondents was adamant based on the theoretical saturation model [43].

Photographic catalog

A photographic itemize of the bird species of the Zapotitlán Valley was presented to the interviewees as visual stimuli for the description of the local knowledge that is possessed well-nigh them [44]; this was elaborated from the inventory of species conducted, and images obtained from the Image Bank of the National Commission for the Noesis and Use of Biodiversity in 2016 (CONABIO) [45].

The catalog was used for complementing the interviews, equally an incentive to know details that could accept been omitted during the answer to the specific questions; together with the interview, it immune estimating the number of species that people know and identify.

Data analysis

The interviews were fully transcribed for later assay by using the Atlas.ti software [46], a program based on the grounded theory of Glaser and Strauss [47]; with tools for structuring and qualitative analysis. From the identification of primary concepts and ideas, an organisation of the information was made in units of analysis, then a categorization of all the documents was made and networks were created in the software. Based on this information, we performed the assay and interpretation of what was recorded in the field with the construction of an explanatory narrative [43, 47].

The gratis listing of birds was analyzed using a cognitive salience alphabetize, the Sutrop index, which combines the frequency and the guild of mention of a bird [48]. The index was calculated from the following formula: S = F / (NmP); where F is the frequency of mention of each bird, North is the total number of respondents, and mP the average position of mention of bird [48]. Calculations were performed with the Flares program (Costless list analysis under R environs using Shiny).

Results and discussion

Bird richness in managed systems

Nosotros recorded 89 bird species, 68% of the 130 species that have been reported for the Zapotitlán Salinas Valley. The species recorded vest to 61 genera, 26 families, and xi orders: highlighting the Parulidae (13 species), Tyrannidae (12 species), and Trochilidae, Troglodytidae, and Passerellidae (with seven species each). Xx-one species (23%) have some degree of endemism, 7 beingness strictly owned to Mexico, 11 semi-endemic, and three quasi-endemics (encounter Additional file 1).

Iv species are nether some protection category of the NOM-059; three are discipline to special protection (Parabuteo unicinctus (Temminck, 1824); Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771; Aimophila notosticta (P. L. Sclater & Salvin, 1868)) and one is considered threatened (Geothlypis tolmiei (J. Chiliad. Townsend, 1839)). In full, 59 species are resident and 30 migratory; 43 are insectivorous, 14 omnivorous, xiii granivorous, seven nectarivores, vii carnivorous, and five frugivorous.

About 66% of the registered species are resident; they have a broad distribution within the locality, are generalist species, and are associated with areas of higher temperature and lower humidity, compared to the migratory species that reach Zapotitlán Salinas, like the clay-colored finch, the peregrine falcon, or the ruby-throated hummingbird [18, 49, l].

A large percentage of the migratory species registered for the locality (62%) were observed during the sampling. These species are associated to areas with higher humidity weather in the locality, like riparian zones of the Salado river, and their distribution is smaller [eighteen, 49].

Regarding the endemic species occurring in the Zapotitlán Salinas Valley, all of them were recorded during the sampling; these have a broad distribution inside the locality [l].

The species that were not registered are those associated with riparian areas and temporary and permanent rivers and streams; also, those found in restricted areas of the locality, specifically, in the riparian mesquite areas [49]. In addition to the species with restricted distribution, it is likely that, even if the sampling effort can exist considered robust, some species considered rare or not abundant in the surface area were not detected in samples.

Although the resident species occurring in the sampled plots move throughout the Zapotitlán Valley, the presence of a high pct of migratory species indicates that the expanse with agroforestry management systems may correspond spaces of of import resources seasonally used, even when the humidity conditions are less favorable than in other areas.

Although the agroforestry practices established in the sampling plots are not currently subject to intense management, their presence and distribution within the field and their composition may exist defining the richness of the birdlife. Information technology has been described that agroforestry systems tin can provide important resources for migratory birds, such as shelter, nutrient, and facilitate the move between patches [51].

According to Zuria and Gates [52], the size and complication of agroforestry practices of the "land margin," such as living fences, windbreak barriers, terraces, or hedges, as well as its proximity with patches or remnants of the original vegetation, determine the richness and composition of the bird community; too equally the characteristics that appear in the sampled sites and their associated agroforestry practices in Zapotitlán Salinas.

As well, the presence and abundance of mesquite (Prosopis laevigata (Willd.) M.C. Johnst., Fabaceae) is positively related to the richness of birds, due to the multiple resources offered past this species. Zuria and Gates [52] documented the presence of 61 species of birds, 36 resident, and 24 migratory in agricultural plots within agroforestry practices called "land margin" in an arid area of Guanajuato.

In addition, the sites have a high abundance of mesquite, merely unlike the report of Zuria and Gates, in Zapotitlán Salinas, besides mesquite, other constitute species of importance for birdlife were recorded, including several species of columnar cacti (Myrtillocactus geometrizans (Mart. Ex Pfeiff.) Panel., Cactaceae; Stenocereus stellatus (Pfeiff.) Riccob., Cactaceae), agaves (Agave salmiana Otto ex Salm-Dyck, Asparagaceae; Agave marmorata Roezl, Asparagaceae), legume (Vachellia constricta (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger, Fabaceae; Prosopis laevigata), Bursera trees (Bursera aptera Ramirez, Burseraceae; Bursera submoniliformis Engl, Burseraceae), and bushes (Jatropha neopauciflora Pax, Euphorbiaceae, Cnidoscolus sp., Euphorbiaceae), amidst others.

What people know about birds

Local people of Zapotitlán Salinas continually interact with birds of their locality; in homegardens, in the squares and streets of the town, also every bit in the cultivated and fallow agricultural areas, and in the secondary and principal woods areas. According to the daily life and productive activities that each villager performs, these interactions may differ in diversity, and the groups of birds that are more commonly used and managed. From these interactions, the local people of Zapotitlán interviewed recognized 62 morphospecies occurring in their territory, which belong to 26 families and 11 orders. The divergence with respect the general inventory generated during the research tin can be explained because for local people several species of the same guild or genus are not differentiated. Well-nigh birds have a local proper name, which may exist related to bird characteristics like color and shape of the feathers, their song, move, feeding habits, specific behaviors (during foraging or courting, for example) among other ecological habits [53, 54]. Villagers assign 50 local names to the 62 recognized morphospecies, because some species take different names, such as Pyrocephalus rubinus (Boddaert, 1783), which is known every bit "rayito," or "San Gabrielito." Contrarily, several species of the same genus have the same proper noun, such as Catherpes mexicanus (Swainson, 1829), Troglodytes aedon Vieillot, 1809, and Thryomanes bewickii (Audubon, 1827), which are all called "saltapared." People also recognize some species equally varieties, such as orioles, three types of which are identified: "common oriole" (Icterus wagleri P. L. Sclater, 1857), "yellow oriole" (Icterus pustulatus (Wagler, 1829)), and "fine or Spanish oriole" (Icterus cucullatus Swainson, 1827) (see Additional file 2).

The recognized species are by and large residents and considered common in the locality, different most of the non-annealed species, which have a smaller distribution, associated with areas of college humidity and lower temperature, that are considered rare or less arable, like the migratory chipe Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus, 1766), or the few abundant Sporophila torqueola (Bonaparte, 1850).

From the gratuitous listing of birds and the calculated cerebral salience index, six of the total birds mentioned are outstanding: Mimus polyglottos (Linnaeus, 1758) (0.33), Zenaida asiatica (Linnaeus, 1758) (0.24), Haemorhous mexicanus (P. Fifty. Statius Müller, 1776) (0.xix), Icterus sp. (0.xv), Columbina inca (Lesson, 1847) (0.12), and Toxostoma curvirostre (Swainson, 1827) (0.eleven). The half-dozen species highlighted co-ordinate to the order and frequency of mention are valued in several aspects; their apply is an important aspect, since the six species are used as ornamental birds. Columbina inca and Zenaida asiatica are consumed equally food, but also for being interpreted as signs, because Toxostoma curvirostre is considered a bird predictor. It is of import to highlight that Mimus polyglottos was mentioned by all the interviewees and the highest index of valuation; information technology is of import for its apply, symbolic and aesthetic reasons.

Interactions shaped by uses, behavior, and rituals

The environmental interactions between people and birds of Zapotitlán Salinas respond to various motivations. Those more intense are utilitarian, while other less obvious are those related to the awareness of take a chance and conservation of biodiversity, every bit well as to the aesthetic appreciation and interactions shaped past the worldview of the population and interpreted from the knowledge they possess.

Xviii species and the Trochilidae were registered with use, under iii categories: food (four species), medicinal (four species and one family), and use for decoration (13 species). These species belong to ten families and six orders; within the Trochilidae, in that location is no selection past species for use due to the difficulty of selecting the private when hunting (Table two).

Table 2 Uses of the birds in Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla, United mexican states

Full size table

Three species of columbiforms (Columbina inca, Columbina passerina (Linnaeus, 1758) and Zenaida asiatica) were mentioned every bit the nearly common birds for consumption (Fig. three), in add-on to a species of woodpecker (Melanerpes hypopolius (Wagler, 1829)), which was mentioned less oft, due to the difficulty of catching information technology.

For a medicinal use, the two species of vulture of the locality (Coragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793) and Cathartes aureola (Linnaeus, 1758)), the crow (Corvus corax Linnaeus, 1758), the roadrunner (Geococcyx velox (Wagner, 1836)), and several species of hummingbirds (Trochilidae) are used. The diseases that are treated with these species are mainly cardiac illnesses, epilepsy, and rabies; these birds are besides used to care for weather and discomforts such every bit "tirisia," "alferecia," and "mishcahue," which are cultural diseases common in Zapotitlán Salinas. "Alferecia" is a condition of the children manifesting bruising of nails, lips, and eyelids, as well equally seizures. "Mishcahue" is the upset that women experience later on labor if they do non run across the recommended twoscore days of resting, while "tirisia" is a status whose symptoms are associated with lack of appetite, reluctance, and paleness; it usually occurs in people who suffer from sadness and disappointment [55].

Xiii species were recorded with ornamental use: mainly the "chape" (Mimus polyglottos), the "tehuacanera dove" (Zenaida asiatica), the tortolita (Columbina inca), the "torito" (Columbina passerina), the sparrow (Haemorhous mexicanus), two species of orioles (Icterus cucullatus, Icterus pustulatus), two species of "bionches" (Pheucticus chrysopeplus (Vigors, 1832), Pheucticus melanocephalus (Swainson, 1827)), "cuicuite" (Toxostoma curvirostre), and "dominico" (Spinus psaltria (Say, 1822)). Other species that come to exist kept at habitation, but less oftentimes, are the nightingale (Phainopepla nitens (Swainson, 1838)) and "primavera" (Turdus migratorius Linnaeus, 1766).

Edible and medicinal uses of birds have declined, mainly because, dissimilar in the past, residents can at present access to other resources and services, such as commercial meat and a nearby health service. Currently, food apply is linked to childhood activities, while medicinal utilize is even more than restricted to those who have the cognition, usually to attend emergencies or as an alternative treatment to the i they receive from the physician.

While the maintenance of local ornamental birds is a practise, which has decreased but persists, since it is considered that "birds bring joy to the house" and various interactions with them are established.

The cenzontle, the sparrow, that one besides sings a lot, he learns, he also learns if you teach him. The sparrow, the bionche, they do larn, usually the people accept sparrows, about in the firm they have the sparrow, the cenzontle; they are attractive because the sing"—Woman, 84 years.

Other forms of interactions with birds were recorded in the site studied, linked to behavior, rites, and rituals and to the reading or predicting environmental events. The utilize equally amulet was registered in a family unit, which represents an element of great value for the person who carries it and transmits and secures a skilful. We recorded six species every bit omens, which are signs of warning of a future event. The category of climatic and environmental changes predictors (ECP 9 species) is understood as the reading and interpretation of a betoken expressed from an unusual song or activeness of the bird, which indicates a change in the weather or a specific climatic event and finally, the ritual category (a species and a family) is registered, in which a bird is used every bit an chemical element associated with an consequence of ritual characteristics (Table iii).

Table three Bird species with categories linked to beliefs, myths, rites, and rituals in Zapotitlán Salinas

Full size table

The Trochilidae is used as amulet; no any particular species of hummingbird is preferred; their capture is carried out opportunistically or casually, and the hummingbird captured tin can exist kept for after utilize as amulet or medicine.

Used for omen, we recorded the two species of vultures, the roadrunner, the "tecolote" (Glaucidium brasilianum (Gmelin, 1788)), the "rayito," and the "cuicuite" (Fig. 4). These are divided betwixt those that presage or announce good luck or an event considered good and those that presage bad luck or notify nearly an event considered bad.

Nine species were recorded as predictors of climatic and environmental changes: the "totopito con chilaquil" (Aegolius acadicus (Gmelin, 1788)), the roadrunner, the "tecolote," ii species of swallows (Hirundo rustica Linnaeus, 1758; Stelgidopteryx serripennis (Audubon, 1838)), three species recognized equally "saltapared" (Catherpes mexicanus (Swainson, 1829); Troglodytes aedon Vieillot, 1809; Thryomanes bewickii (Audubon, 1827)), and the owl (Tyto alba (Scopoli, 1769)). In the case of peasants and salineros (people extracting common salt from mines), these ECPs help them to interpret rain announcements that allow them to prepare actions; for instance, the salineros rush the collection and protection of salt in the face of this pelting forecast.

Also, the one who sings is the saltapared, sings also when is going to pelting. Ah! besides the roadrunner warns, that well-nigh does not sing, that, when it is very hot and the fourth dimension is already fix then he sings and it is going to rain, yes—Man, 73 years.

Finally, Corvus corax and species of the Trochilidae were registered in the ritual category, which are birds used as elements within rituals of limpias (spiritual cleaning).

Management practices

Three practices of bird direction were identified: hunting, capture, and bird nurturing. The birds that are under these practices are after destined to various forms of use.

Hunting

Bird hunting is carried out just with a slingshot and is intended to obtain individuals for food employ, medicinal utilize, or to prepare and preserve the bird as amulet. This activity is performed in hills or agronomical fields occasionally; in the case of food use, hunting is done for immediate use, while birds hunted for medicinal utilize or equally amulet can be kept for afterward use (Tables ii and iii).

Capture

The chicks of several bird species are captured in the nest, occasionally, while other activities are carried out in hills or plots. Such are the cases of grazing and caring for cattle or goats, the preparation of the land, planting or harvesting of crops, harvesting of fruits, and inflorescences of cacti or insects, can also be carried out by a specific order; the birds that are caught are destined only as ornamental birds (Fig. 5).

In general, children and women make the capture from Apr to Baronial. Some men also involve in the capture and take the chicks to their homes. Occasional captures are also made in the homegardens; in addition, information technology is common that people give a bird as nowadays.

In the woods and agricultural fields, nests are identified through the beliefs of adult individuals; one time located, 1 or all the chicks are captured, depending on the amount of chicks found in the nest, and according to the species. Although no specific sites for capturing chicks were identified, the canyons, cacti forest, and the agroforestry systems were referred to every bit the more frequented places for carrying out this practise.

The male individuals are selected for captures since these take more than intense coloring of the feather than females and emit striking songs; both characteristics are appreciated in ornamental birds. Selection of male chicks is carried out according to their size; the largest chicks being males, and the "transparency" of the neb; according to the handlers, the nostrils of the chicks should be observed; if it can exist seen through the holes in the chick, the chick is most likely male. People decide to leave the females in the nest so that these species continue to reproduce.

Bird nurturing

In Zapotitlán Salinas, there has not been documented reproduction of wild birds in captivity. Whether the chicks are destined to be kept in the captor's house or is intended for sale, information technology must exist taught to eat; information technology is fed with a variety of native cactus fruits, in addition to other domesticated fruits, seeds, and other foods such as dough, chickpea, chili, caprine animal milk, and boiled egg, depending on the species.

In add-on, birds must get used to people and the dissonance that surrounds the house and then to ensure their survival; they cannot be sold until that menstruum of adaptation ends and eats by themselves; this procedure is carried out by and large past women or children guided and helped by adults.

Persistence and loss of forms of use and other categories of interaction

The employ of birds for food and medicine are widespread throughout the state; several species of the Columbidae are selected for consumption; this preference may be related to the flavor of the meat, provided by its granivorous diet, with its presence and abundance in populated areas and with its hunting facility [7, 44, 56, 57].

The current medicinal use of hummingbird and vulture species in United mexican states is related to the beliefs that various regions of the country have preserved since pre-Hispanic times; these birds had a strong presence and deep meaning in the Mesoamerican worldview [58]. The hummingbird represented rebirth, vitality, sexuality, and since and so, healing powers were attributed to treat epilepsy, so its electric current use to treat heart disease represents a permanence of knowledge and this reading and interpretation in the community worldview. While the vulture had the function in the world of cleaning the rotten, had access and contact with the underworld, and represented purification [58, 59].

Norms, agreements, and manual of local environmental noesis

Management practices allow birds to continue to reproduce, ensure a greater probability of survival by avoiding the capture of adult individuals, and the capture of birds by people outside the customs is monitored; when they identify someone with cages trying to catch birds, they attract their attention and prevent them from existence carried away.

Local environmental knowledge linked to birds is transmitted generationally, from grandparents and parents to children and grandchildren. It is taught to recognize the birds and their songs and to place the nests corresponding to the species, the migration seasons of the migratory species, the procedure of capture and nurturing in those families that perform this practise, also as the reading and estimation of the predictor birds or "poultry birds."

This teaching-learning process is linked to feel and observation of the surroundings; it is transmitted while walking and working the field, through daily observation and the assessment, apply and conservation of species.

Persistence and loss of human-bird interactions and knowledge

Given the changes in the uses of the local birdlife, there is a procedure of loss of knowledge; knowledge linked to food and medicinal uses is more vulnerable to the passage of time, compared to those linked to reading the environment and cultural interpretations.

A hypothesis derived from this research is that this is related to the effort that needs to be invested to obtain the birds and use them straight, equally well as with the persistence of the commonsensical value over time. In addition to the higher up, restrictions to using of wildlife in the community, likewise as access to other resources, have led to the discontinuation of wild animals for nutritional and medicinal purposes.

On the other hand, for the interpretation of the ECPs and the omens, in which a reading of the environs and predictions is developed, these processes are however carried out to the extent that they are still useful for the daily life of the inhabitants. In add-on, the pedagogy of these dynamics of reading and estimation keep being transmitted, while ascertainment allows the residents to establish complex relationships with their natural surround and from that generate ecology noesis at the local level to deal with uncertainty in fourth dimension and space [15].

Environmental changes in Zapotitlán Salinas

The interviewees said that the raining patterns take changed, specially the temporality and intensity of rains. Therefore, the capacity of predicting events of rain and their characteristics by people has decreased their effectivity, and there is a generalized perception of rainfall scarcity in the region.

Such perceived rainfall scarcity is the main explanation that people give to the turn down of ingather production in recent years, a situation that has led to a gradual abandonment of agricultural activities. Recently, alternative crops have been implemented (for example: pitahaya, papaya, agave); in add-on, the increasing of tourism-associated activities and the provision of services (nutrient services, lodging), as the master economic activities that the population consider more than assisting than agriculture, has been increased.

It is also explained by people that such decrease in rainfall is the cause of changes in the construction in homegardens inside the town, which have modified their composition, reducing the presence of constitute species that require more than water.

The environmental changes that take taken identify in Zapotitlán Salinas at unlike scales shape the relationship that people establish with their environment and with the biodiversity occurring in information technology. The interactions with the local birdlife have been transformed from the decree of the Reserve and other less obvious processes that have occurred gradually over time (Fig. 6). From the decree of the TCBR, in 1998, the capture and sale of ornamental birds was prohibited, equally well every bit the employ and trade of other faunal and institute groups. These prohibitions were stipulated in the management plan of the Reserve.

Given these restrictions, the change in bird capture activities was gradual and has been reflected, to a greater extent, in the decrease of commercialization of ornamental birds outside Zapotitlán Salinas. Within the town, the commercialization continues happening; however, this does not represent an important economic income for those who practise it, similarly as it happened in the past, according to local people perception.

Thus, we tin can see that other forms of interaction arose between local people and the birds of Zapotitlán, from the evolution of activities associated to tourism in the context of the TCBR. Bird watching, for instance, has emerged as an activity of interest to some visitors. In item, it is attractive to foreign observers and to the academic sector that is dedicated to ornithological research, which tin can be facilitated by the local guides of the botanical garden, who have a detailed cognition of its local bird diversity.

In addition to the fourth dimension scale, at that place are defined spaces where the described interactions occur. The importance of the resource occurring in the semi-terrace plots (cuaxustles) and homegardens for the maintenance of the populations of some bird species is noticeable, since these may be functioning as spaces for resting and accessing food when they are scarce in the forest. The loss of some institute species in the homegardens, which can no longer be maintained due to the water availability, may be generating changes in these interactions; therefore, it seems of import to conserve the homegardens that still maintain establish resources, both native and some introduced that practise not require much water.

Theoretical contribution from the environmental sciences perspective to arroyo human-bird interactions

Differently to other perspectives that focus on social or natural aspects, the ethnobiological perspectives brand possible to identify the connectedness betwixt use, management, and symbolism that human groups have in relation to birds and the representations that are made in a past and nowadays temporal continuum [60]. Through investigating the local names that people give to their birds, nosotros can know the diversity that a human group recognizes, identifying the characteristics that information technology observes of the species, as well as the cultural significance they possess.

The knowledge that we documented through this perspective includes the estimation of birds equally indicators of annual cycles and ecology quality, as a guide to some homo actions, besides every bit elements of resource utilise regulation, which allows us to analyze its ecological and sociocultural importance, at various scales; since this noesis although in principle is studied locally, it is possible and so to find patterns at other scales [60, 61].

The environmental perspective is an approach that unifies social and ecological systems and contributes to ethnobiology allowing the approach to spatial and temporal scales in a dynamic manner. Therefore, information technology is possible to link the ecological, economic, and social changes of the region to understand the touch on of these factors in the human being-bird relations beyond a static historical perspective.

Conclusions

The great richness of birds of Zapotitlán, recognized and interpreted from the vast and detailed local ecology knowledge, is shown as a field of opportunity to develop eco-tourism-associated activities including bird watching and conservation. Information technology is important to enhance the oral transmission of noesis related to local diversity, through activities such every bit science popularization activities, which may contribute to prevent the loss and erosion of this knowledge.

To understand the various human-bird environmental interactions, it is necessary not only to address the utilitarian importance that species have in a specific place but also to accost the importance of intangible cultural relationships and read the connectedness betwixt these aspects, by resorting to it to the uses and to the system of beliefs and normativity that persist and resist. Ancient roles of birds in local culture are ongoing; the demand of ornamental birds from cities influences catching activities but local and regional regulations have contributed to maintain them below a disquisitional level.

Availability of data and materials

Data are attachment to the manuscript.

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Acknowledgement

The authors admit the back up in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and writing the manuscript of the projects DGAPA-UNAM PAPIIT IG200720 and IN206520.

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Authors and Affiliations

Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores Unidad Morelia (ENES Morelia), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM, Campus Morelia, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro No. 8701, Col. Ex-Hacienda de San José de la Huerta, 58190, Morelia, MICH, México

Yessica Angélica Romero-Bautista, Ana Isabel Moreno-Calles & Fernando Alvarado-Ramos
Jardín Botánico Helia Bravo Hollis, Comunidad de Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla, México

Maurino Reyes Castillo
Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad (IIES), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM, Campus Morelia, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro No. 8701, Col. Ex-Hacienda de San José de la Huerta, 58190, Morelia, MICH, México

Alejandro Casas

Contributions

YARB, AIMC, and FAR evolution throughout the form of this work, from planning, fieldwork, interviews, data analysis, and writing of this paper. AIMC is the corresponding author and main coordinator of the enquiry project study. AIMC, Ac, FAR, and MRC are experts in ethnobiology, ornithology, and local cognition themes and assisted newspaper writing. All authors read and canonical the final manuscript writer contributions.

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AIMC and FAR are researchers at the Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Morelia. AC is full time researcher at Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, UNAM. YARB is the first writer at te Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores Unidad Morelia. MRC is a local expert in birds in Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla,

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Correspondence to Ana Isabel Moreno-Calles.

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Supplementary information

Boosted file i: Tabular array S1.

Species recorded in the samples. EN: endemic; SE: semiendemic; CE: quasiendemic; R: resident; MI: winter migratory; A: threatened; East: probably extinct in the wild; P: in danger of extinction; Pr: subject to special protection.

Additional file 2: Table S2.

Species identified by the inhabitants and their local name. The local name is associated with: S: vocal; PC: plumage colour; FH: feeding habits; RH: reproductive habits; BH: behavioral habits; FS: feather shape: M: movements; D: damage to the population.

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Romero-Bautista, Y.A., Moreno-Calles, A.I., Alvarado-Ramos, F. et al. Environmental interactions between people and birds in semiarid lands of the Zapotitlán Valley, Central United mexican states. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 16, 32 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00385-i

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Received: 16 April 2020
Accepted: 28 May 2020
Published: 05 June 2020
DOI : https://doi.org/ten.1186/s13002-020-00385-1

Keywords

Biocultural diverseness
Ethnozoology
Ethno-ornithology
Agroforestry
Management
Zapotitlán Salinas
Puebla